- Volume 54 (2020)
- Vol. 54 (2020)
- >
- Issue 1
- No. 1
- >
- Pages 131 - 156
- pp. 131 - 156
Buddhisizing the World: Global Imperialism and Kawaguchi Ekai's Travels in Tibet
Pages 131 - 156
DOI https://doi.org/10.13173/jasiahist.54.1.0131
This study focuses on a Buddhist monk named Kawaguchi Ekai, the first Japanese to reach Lhasa. Kawaguchi risked his life to bring back to Japan a large amount of Sanskrit originals and Tibetan translations of Buddhist scriptures, which helped build the foundation for the academic study of Buddhism in modern Japan. Kawaguchi's impressive faith, courage, and contribution produced an aura around him that often overshadowed the intricate connection between his journey and the rise of national imperialism in Meiji Japan. I argue that he viewed Tibet through an Imperial lens, transforming Tibetans into irrational and backward barbarians in his widely circulated book
1 Asada Teruhiko 浅田晃彦. Sekai musen ryokōsha: Yajima Yasujirō 世界無銭旅行者—矢島保次郎. Tokyo: Chikuma, 1986.
2 Botsman, Daniel. Punishment and Power in the Making of Modern Japan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University, 2007.
3 Caron, Francois and Joost Schorten. A True Description of the Mighty Kingdoms of Japan and Siam, translated by Roger Manley, London: Samuel Broun and John de l'Ecluse, 1663 [encoded online version: name.umdl.umich.edu/A34454.0001.001].
4 Chen, Li. Chinese Law in Imperial Eyes: Sovereignty, Justice, and Transcultural Politics. New York, NY: Columbia University, 2016.
5 Coleman, IV William M., Making the State on the Sino-Tibetan Frontier: Chinese Expansion and Local Power in Batang 1842-1939. PhD dissertation, Columbia University, 2014.
6 Culver, Annika A. Glorify the Empire: Japanese Avant-Garde Propaganda in Manchukuo. Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 2014.
7 “Dai himitsu koku no tanken chibetto keireki dan” 大秘密國の探検西藏経歴談, Osaka Mainichi Shimbun 大阪毎日新聞, June 4, 1903.
8 Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, translated by Alan Sheridan. New York, NY: Vintage, 21995.
9 Fozhong 佛衷. “Zangying jiaoshe yange” 藏英交涉沿革 (A History of Tibetan-British Interaction), Sichuan 四川 3 (1908), 60-78.
10 Fukuzawa Yukichi 福沢諭吉. “Datsu-A Ron” 脱亜論, in: Fukuzawa Yukichi Chosakushū 福沢諭吉著作集, ed. by Iwatani Jūrō 岩谷十郎 and Nishikawa Junsaku 西川俊作 (Tokyo: Keio University, 2002), vol. 8, 261-265.
11 Hardacre, Helen. Shinto and the State, 1868-1988. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University, 1991.
12 Holtom, Daniel C. Modern Japan and Shinto Nationalism. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago, 1943.
13 Hur, Nam-lin. “The Sōtō Sect and Japanese Military Imperialism in Korea”, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 21.1-2 (1999), 107-134.
14 Iokibe Kaoru 五百旗頭薫. Jyōyaku kaiseishi: hōken kaifuku e no tenbō to nashonarizumu 条約改正史—法権回復への展望とナショナリズム . Tokyo: Yūhikaku, 2011.
15 Ishikawa Shuntai 石川舜台. “Meiji bukkyo hishi” 明治仏教秘史, Chūgai Nippō 中外日報, March 21, 1923.
16 Jiao Yingqi 焦應旗. Zangcheng jilüe 藏程紀略, in: Chuanzang youzong huibian 川藏遊蹤彙編, ed. by Wu Fengpei 吳豐培 (Chengdu: Sichuan minzu, 1985), 11-17.
17 Kaempfer, Engelbert. Kaempfer's Japan: Tokugawa Culture Observed, ed., trans. and annot. by Beatrice M. Bodart-Bailey. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i, 1999.
18 Kawaguchi Ekai 河口慧海. Chibetto ryokōki (jyōkan) 西藏旅行記 (上巻). Tokyo: Haku, 1904 [Kawaguchi Ekai 1904a].
19 Kawaguchi Ekai 河口慧海. Chibetto ryokōki gekan 西藏旅行記 (下巻). Tokyo: Hakubunkan, 1904 [Kawaguchi Ekai 1904b].
20 “Keiyo no mukuro o motte tōken o kokoromi oyobi jintan reitengai tō mitsubai o genkinsu” 刑余ノ骸ヲ以テ刀剣ヲ試ミ及人胆霊天蓋等密売ヲ厳禁ス (no. 294, 1870), in: Hōrei zensho 法例全書, 173. Tokyo: Naikaku kanpō kyoku, 1887-1892.
21 Kiba Akeshi 木場明志 and Cheng Shuwei 程舒偉, Shokuminchiki Manshū no shkyō: nitchū ryōkoku no shiten kara kataru 植民地期満洲の宗教—日中両国の視点から語る. Tokyo: Kashiwa, 2007.
22 Kim, Hwansoo. Empire of the Dharma: Korean and Japanese Buddhism, 1877-1912. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 2013.
23 Kimura Hisao 木村肥佐生. “Narita Yasuteru Chibetto tanken kō keii (chū): gaikō shiryō ni miru higashi chibetto keiyu nyūzō zasetsuki” 成田安輝西蔵探検行経緯(中)—外交資料に見る東チベット経由入蔵挫折記, Ajia Kenkyusho kiyō アジア研究所紀要 8 (1981), 139-192.
24 Kirisutokyō nenkan キリスト教年鑑. Tokyo: Kirisuto, 1981.
25 Kōmoto Yasuko 高本康子. “1900 Nendai no shinbun kiji ni miru kindai Nippon no Chibetto zō” 1900 年代の新聞記事に見る近代日本のチベット像. Nihon Chibetto Gakkai Kaihō 日本チベット学会会報 56 (2010), 1-11.
26 Kōmoto Yasuko 高本康子. Kindai Nihon ni okeru Chibetto zō no keisei to tenkai 近代日本におけるチベット像の形成と展開 . Tokyo: Fuyō shobō, 2010.
27 Koishikawa Zenji 礫川全次 (ed.). Hitokui no minzokugaku 人喰いの民俗学. Tokyo: Hihyōsha, 1997.
28 Kurita Hisaya 栗田尚弥. Shanghai Tōa Dōbun Shoin: Nicchū o kaken toshita otokotachi 上海東亜同文書院―日中を架けんとした男たち . Tokyo: Shin jinbutsu ōraisha, 1993.
29 Mibu Taishun 壬生台舜. “Kawaguchi korekushon ni tsuite” 河口コレクションに就いて. Nihon Chibetto Gakkai Kaihō 日本西藏学会会報 2 (1955), 1-3.
30 Mullins, Mark R. Christianity Made in Japan: A Study of Indigenous Movements. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i, 1998.
31 Nakanishi Naoki 中西直樹. Shokuminchi Taiwan to Nihon Bukkyo 植民地台湾と日本仏教. Kyoto: Sanninsha, 2016.
32 Oguri Junko 小栗純子 and Nakamura Hajime 中村元. Kindai Bukkyō: Seiji to shūkyō to minshū 近代仏教—政治と宗教と民衆. Tokyo: Kōsei, 1972.
33 Ōmori Chikako 大森史子. “Tōa Dōbunkai to Tōa Dōbun Shoin: sono seiritsu jijō, seikaku oyobi katsudō” 東亜同文会と東亜同文書院—その成立事情、性格および活動. Ajia Keizai アジア経済 19.6 (1978), 76-92.
34 Powles, Cyril H. Victorian Missionaries in Meiji Japan, The Shiba Sect: 1873-1900. Toronto: University of Toronto, York University Centre on Modern East Asia, 1987.
35 Reynolds, Douglas. China: 1898-1912: The Xinzheng Revolution and Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1993.
36 Rowbotham, Arnold H. “China in the Esprit des Lois: Montesquieu and Mgr. Foucquet “, Comparative Literature 2.4 (1950), 354-359.
37 Rubinger, Richard. Popular Literacy in Early Modern Japan. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i, 2007.
38 Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1979.
39 Sawada Jirō 澤田次郎. “Chibetto o meguru Nippon no chōhō katsudō to himitsu kōsaku:1890 nendai kara 1910 nendai o chūshin ni (1)” チベットをめぐる日本の諜報活動と秘密工作―一八九〇年代から一九一〇年代を中心に (一). Takushoku Daigaku Ronshū: Jinbun, shizen, ningen kagaku kenkyū 拓殖大学論集—人文．自然．人間科学研究 40 (2018), 1-42.
40 Sawada Jirō 澤田次郎. “Chibetto o meguru Nippon no chōhō katsudō to himitsu kōsaku: 1890 nendai kara 1910 nendai o chūshin ni (2)” チベットをめぐる日本の諜報活動と秘密工作 ―一八九〇年代から一九一〇年代を中心に (二). Takushoku Daigaku Ronshū: Jinbun, shizen, ningen kagaku kenkyū 41 (2019), 1-24.
41 “Sekai no himitsu koku” 世界の秘密國, Jiji Shinpō 時事新報, August 7, 1903.
42 Shinoda Kōzō 篠田構造. “Namakubi no torihiki” 生首の取引, in: Koishikawa Zenji 1997, 311-316.
43 Shinohara Masato 篠原正人. “Meiji jidai no taichibetto sekkinsaku Fukushima Yasumasa, Teramoto Enga o chūshin ni” 明治時代の対チベット接近策—福島安正、寺本婉雅を中心に. Gunji Shigaku 軍事史学 5.1 (2009), 4-18.
44 Siebold, Philipp Franz von. Manners and Customs of the Japanese, in the Nineteenth Century. London: John Murray, 1841.
45 Suzuki Takashi 鈴木隆史. Nihon teikoku shugi to Manshū, 1900-1945 (Jyō) 日本帝国主義と満洲, 1900–1945 (上). Tokyo: Hanawa, 1992.
46 Takayama Ryūzō 高山龍三. Kawaguchi Ekai 河口慧海. Jinbutsu shoshi taikei 人物書誌大系, vol.44. Tokyo: Nichigai asoshieitsu, 2015.
47 Tanaka Kōgai 田中香涯, “Bunka minzoku ni okeru jinnikushoku” 文化民族における人肉食, in: Koishikawa Zenji 1997, 317-325.
48 Tanaka, Stephan. Japan's Orient: Rendering Past into History. Berkeley, CA: University of California, 1995.
49 Teraishi Masamichi 寺石正路. “Shokujin Fūshū nitsuite nobu” 食人風習ニ就テ述ブ, in: Koishikawa Zenji 1997, 55-69.
50 Tohoku University Museum (ed.). “Kawaguchi Ekai Korekushon” 河口慧海コレクション, online: webdb2.museum.tohoku.ac.jp/data_base/tounitibi/ekai/index.html (accessed October 5, 2019).
51 Tōyō Bunko. “Volume Index to the Kawaguchi Collection of Tibetan Literature”, online: 124.33.215.236/Database/kawaguchi_titles.html (accessed October 7, 2019).
52 Uji'ie Mikito 氏家幹人. Ōedo shitaikō: Hitokiri Asaemon no jidai 大江戸死体考―人斬り浅右衛門の時代. Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1999.
53 Victoria, Brian Daizen. Zen at War. Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield, 2006.
54 Young, Louise Conrad. “Lessons from Imperial and Post-Imperial Japan”, in: The Oxford Handbook of the Ends of Empire, edited by Martin Thomas, Andrew Thompson, 212-230. Oxford: Oxford University, 2018.
55 Zhang Yintang 張蔭棠. “Zhang Yintang zouchen Xizang neiwai qingxing bing shanhou shiyi zhe” 張蔭棠奏陳西藏內外情形并善後事宜折 [1907], in: Yuan yilai Xizang difang yu zhongyang zhengfu guanxi dang'an shiliao huibian 元以来西藏地方与中央政府关系档案史料汇编 ed. by Zhongguo zangxue yanjiu zhongxin et al. (Beijing: Zhongguo zangxue, 1993), vol. 4, 1554-1564.
56 Zivkovic, Tanya Maria. Consuming the Lama: Transformations of Tibetan Buddhist Bodies”, Body & Society 20.1 (2014), 111-132.
